rus
Issue #6/2025
A. M. Frolov, P. S. Vervikishko, T. V. Bgasheva, S. V. Petukhov, A. S. Bulava, M. V. Brykin, M. A. Sheindlin
Densification of Super-Refractory Carbide Ceramics by Laser Remelting for Laser-Induced Mass Spectrometry
Densification of Super-Refractory Carbide Ceramics by Laser Remelting for Laser-Induced Mass Spectrometry
DOI: 10.22184/1993-7296.FRos.2025.19.6.444.453
This paper provides a modification method for the surface layer of mixed tantalum–hafnium carbide samples to obtain the samples with extremely high density required for reliable implementation of the experiments related to the mass spectrometry of vapor generated during the laser-induced evaporation. Such samples were obtained by remelting the surface layer of tantalum–hafnium carbide ceramics using a series of subsecond laser pulses. Analysis of the obtained remelted areas has shown that the crystallized melt area is single-phase mixed carbide, namely a solid solution of the HfC – TaC system that is characterized by a highly uniform distribution of tantalum and hafnium throughout the remelted area. The time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to study the evolution of vapor components during the laser-induced evaporation process of pre-melted carbide that demonstrated a good correlation with the surface temperature in contrast to the experiments with the sintered ceramics.
This paper provides a modification method for the surface layer of mixed tantalum–hafnium carbide samples to obtain the samples with extremely high density required for reliable implementation of the experiments related to the mass spectrometry of vapor generated during the laser-induced evaporation. Such samples were obtained by remelting the surface layer of tantalum–hafnium carbide ceramics using a series of subsecond laser pulses. Analysis of the obtained remelted areas has shown that the crystallized melt area is single-phase mixed carbide, namely a solid solution of the HfC – TaC system that is characterized by a highly uniform distribution of tantalum and hafnium throughout the remelted area. The time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to study the evolution of vapor components during the laser-induced evaporation process of pre-melted carbide that demonstrated a good correlation with the surface temperature in contrast to the experiments with the sintered ceramics.
Densification of Super-Refractory Carbide Ceramics by Laser Remelting for Laser-Induced Mass Spectrometry
A. M. Frolov, P. S. Vervikishko, T. V. Bgasheva, S. V. Petukhov, A. S. Bulava, M. V. Brykin, M. A. Sheindlin
Joint Institute for High Temperatures, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
This paper provides a modification method for the surface layer of mixed tantalum–hafnium carbide samples to obtain the samples with extremely high density required for reliable implementation of the experiments related to the mass spectrometry of vapor generated during the laser-induced evaporation. Such samples were obtained by remelting the surface layer of tantalum–hafnium carbide ceramics using a series of subsecond laser pulses. Analysis of the obtained remelted areas has shown that the crystallized melt area is single-phase mixed carbide, namely a solid solution of the HfC – TaC system that is characterized by a highly uniform distribution of tantalum and hafnium throughout the remelted area. The time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to study the evolution of vapor components during the laser-induced evaporation process of pre-melted carbide that demonstrated a good correlation with the surface temperature in contrast to the experiments with the sintered ceramics.
Key words: ultra-refractory ceramics, laser heating, melting, laser-induced evaporation
Article received: April 14, 2025
Article accepted: May 25, 2025
INTRODUCTION
The transition metal carbides of groups IV and V demonstrate the outstanding thermal properties that inspires interest in their study for use in the conditions of extreme thermal loads [1–8]. Moreover, one of the most important propertie of these carbides and their compounds is their high melting point that can reach 4300 K [3]. The study of properties of these substances in the area of their potential application (at the temperatures above 3000 K) requires special experimental approaches to the examination of their properties under such conditions [1,4,8]. In this case, one of the key issues is obtaining the samples with certain characteristics, such as density, low impurity content, etc. [9,10]. The special requirements are imposed on the samples used to study the molecular composition of vapor during the laser-induced evaporation process. On the one part, such a study requires a substance with a high density (close to the theoretical one) to avoid generation of a non-uniform temperature field in the vicinity of the sublimation and evaporation surface during rapid heating [11]. On the other part, homogeneity of the distribution of main elements in the substance capacity shall be ensured, since this factor determines the vapor molecular composition and its compliance with the substance under study. The carbide synthesis methods proposed in the literature [10,12] do not allow obtaining any samples that meet these requirements. Thus, the spark plasma sintering method [10] makes is possible to synthesize the samples of high-density mixed carbides, however, they contain small inclusions of individual carbides. The arc discharge synthesis [12] allows obtaining the single-phase samples, but with significant impurities of oxides. This paper proposes a method for modifying the near-surface region of samples of ultra-refractory carbide ceramics (the HfC-TaC system) to obtain a high-density substance with homogenous elemental composition by the laser radiation remelting. The obtained samples were characterized by various analytical methods, and the operational performance of the developed experimental technology of mass spectrometric determination of vapor composition up to the temperatures of about 4500 K was demonstrated.
PREPARATION
OF INITIAL CARBIDE SAMPLES
The mixed carbide samples were obtained by using the hafnium, tantalum and acetylene black powders that were mixed in a ball mill. Hafnium and tantalum were taken in equal atomic fractions, and the atomic fraction of carbon in the mixture was about 50%. Then, a temporary binder (cetane) was added to the resulting powder mixture, after which the blanks with a diameter of 15 mm and a height of 30 mm were pressed using this mixture. The blanks were transferred in a graphite crucible to the high-temperature vacuum furnace, where they were heated to a temperature of 1 400 °C for 30 minutes in an argon environment. Thus, a mixture of hafnium and tantalum carbides was synthesized then ground in a tungsten carbide mortar, after which the temporary binder (cetane) was re-added. The resulting product of mixed carbides was pressed to obtain the samples with a diameter of 8 mm and a height of 7–8 mm. The pressed samples were then placed in a high-temperature vacuum furnace and sintered at 2 200 °C for 1 hour in an argon environment. The sintered samples were cut into two approximately equal pieces using a precision cutting machine. Further processing was performed only in relation to the inner and cleaner part of the sintered TaC–HfC system samples. According to the X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), the sintered samples obtained by this method, contained a mechanical mixture of tantalum carbide and hafnium carbides. The porosity of the sintered carbide, measured by hydrostatic weighing, was about 23%. Application of the samples with such specifications for the laser-induced mass spectrometry using the method described in [11] would lead to the non-uniform heating, temperature pulsation and the absence of a pronounced correlation between the partial pressures of the various vapor components and the surface temperature.
LASER MELTING OF CARBIDE
The experimental setup used for laser remelting of the sample [4] is shown in Fig. 1. The sample was placed in a holder in a sealed chamber. The chamber was evacuated and filled with argon of grade 6.0. This procedure was performed three times to remove residual oxygen from the chamber. The sample surface was heated by radiation emitted by an industrial laser (Trumpf, Germany) with a power of up to 5 kW, generating radiation at a wavelength of 1 030 nm with the heating spot diameter of about 5 mm. The high-speed video recording (3 000 frames/sec) in the reflected light of a diode laser (50 W, 808 nm) was used to analyze the surface condition during the heating process. The sample surface temperature was monitored using a luminance and multichannel pyrometers [13].
During the sample surface remelting by laser heating, it was necessary to generate a melt region of sufficient depth (about 100 μm) that would be obviously greater than the evaporation depth in the mass spectrometric experiment. A necessary condition for its development was the substance heating to a temperature of 200–300 K above its melting point. More significant overheating of the substance above the liquidus temperature is unsuitable, since it can lead to the decrease of amount of carbon in the near-surface layer as a result of its evaporation. To melt the substance, the pulsed laser operating modes with a certain dependence of the pulse power density on time were selected. Due to the eventual interaction processes between the heated sample and the holder material, it was not possible to maintain the substance at temperatures above 4000 K for a long period of time (more than 1 s). For this reason, a series of laser pulses with a duration of 600 ms were used to obtain a melt region with sufficient thickness. At first, the sample was exposed to the high-power density radiation (about 12 kW/cm2)for 400 ms to heat and melt the sample, with the maximum temperature during the heating process not exceeding 4600 K. Then, the power density was reduced and maintained at about 3 kW/cm2 for 200 ms that allowed the sample to cool down slowly enough and generate a smooth surface of the solidifying melt. The video record of the sample demonstrated the sample cracking during the rapid heating process, but this process did not prevent the formation of the molted pool with a diameter approximately equal to the diameter of the heating spot.
CHARACTERIZATION
OF THE REMELTED SAMPLES
The nitrogen and oxygen content in the original ceramic samples using a Fusion Master ON elemental analyzer (NCS, Germany). The amount of these impurities in the samples was no more than 1 atomic %. To analyze the internal structure of the sample melt with 50 mol % HfC after laser irradiation, a section was made through the melt region with the section plane passing through the center of the melt region perpendicular to the surface. The prepared section was analyzed on a scanning electron microscope with an EDX analyzer. Figure 2 a, b shows the SEM images of the section surface that clearly show the original sintered sample structure of the TaC–HfC system with a number of cracks filled with the resin used for the section preparation. In the upper part of the SEM images, a dense homogeneous area generated during the melt crystallization is clearly visible. The EDX analysis of the section surface has shown that the tantalum and hafnium atoms are uniformly distributed over the entire melt region, and the Ta/Hf ratio for this composition is close to unity within 5%, i. e. it matches the specified composition rather well.
Figure 3 shows the results of XRD analysis of the melt region, and also plots the positions of peaks corresponding to the individual tantalum and hafnium carbides. The output analysis has demonstrated that the crystallized melt is a solid solution of TaC–HfC with a cubic crystal lattice with a lattice parameter equal to 4.5561 Å.
STUDY OF THE SAMPLE
EVAPORATION PROCESS
The performance of the proposed sample preparation procedure was verified using a comparative study of the evaporation behaviour of the original sintered and specially prepared samples being heated by the laser pulses. The results for comparison were obtained using a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. This method, described in detail in the papers [14, 15], allows studying the molecular composition evolution of the vapor during the intense laser heating with a duration of several tens of milliseconds and a power density not exceeding 500 kW/cm2. Figure 4 shows the dependences of the atomic hafnium line intensity in the mass spectra for sintered carbide samples 0.5 HfC‑0.5 TaC and for the samples remelted as a result of laser exposure. In the case of the remelted carbide evaporation, a continuous enhanced intensity of hafnium evaporation is observed along with an increased temperature. Another situation is observed during evaporation of the sintered (initial) sample: in this case, a local decrease in the intensity of atomic hafnium is observed over time, despite the increased temperature that is explained by the inhomogeneity of sample obtained by the powder sintering method.
The intensity of atomic hafnium I(Hf) in the mass spectra was used to calculate its relative partial pressure p(Hf) in the vapor according to the formula recommended by IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) [16]:
p(Hf) ~ I(Hf) · T.
The temperature dependence of the relative partial pressure of hafnium in the vapor above the sample of the TaC–HfC system under study, obtained during the laser heating process, is shown in Fig. 5. It is evident that the linear dependence of the pressure logarithm on the reciprocal temperature is maintained throughout the entire temperature range. Thus, it can be concluded that the temperature dependence of the partial pressure of hafnium follows the second law of thermodynamics, and there are no of the evaporation regime.
CONCLUSION
The paper provides the surface modification results of the ultra-refractory carbide system TaC–HfC using the laser heating to obtain a sample suitable for studying the dependence of relative partial pressures of various vapor components on the temperature of up to 4500 K. Remelting of the carbide system sample using a series of sub-second laser pulses of a powerful industrial laser allowed obtaining a single-phase mixed high-density carbide with a uniform distribution of tantalum and hafnium in the melt region. The mass spectrometric study of laser-induced evaporation of the obtained sample showed that during evaporation of such pre-melted carbide, a correct and reproducible dependence of the partial pressures of various molecular vapor components on the temperature value was observed. Thus, it has been determined that it is possible to provide the experimental conditions necessary for analyzing the vapor molecular composition during the intense laser heating up to the previously unattainable temperatures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study was performed with financial support from the Russian Science Foundation under the grant No. 23-79-01139 (https://rscf.ru/project/23–79–01139/).
ABOUT AUTHORS
Frolov Aleksander Michailovich, Cand.of Sc. (Phys.&Math.), Senior Researcher, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, Joint Institute for High Temperatures, Russian Academy of Sciences (JIHT RAS), e-mail: a. m.froloff@yandex.ru, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-3091-9451
Vervikishko Pavel Sergeevich, Senior Researcher, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: miptbusiness@gmail.com, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-4527-6524
Bgasheva Tatiana Vladimirovna, Research Fellow, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: 1.8.1@list.ru, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-5258-0153
Petukhov Sergei Vladimirovich, leading engineer, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: petuhov.sergey@bk.ru, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0003-3852-1314
Bulava Alexander Sergeevich, research fellow, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: bulava.as@phystech.edu, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0009-0005-4804-7056
Brykin Mikhaik Vladimirovich, senior researcher, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: mbrykin@gmail.com, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-8046-888Х
Sheindlin Mikhail Aleksandrovich, Dr. of Sc.(Phys.&Math.), Head of laboratory, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: sheindlin@yandex.ru, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-4960-7757
AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION
Frolov A. M.: idea of the experiment, project management; Vervikishko P. S.: analysis of the impurity composition of the samples; Bgasheva T. V.: SEM EDS analysis; Petukhov S. V.: synthesis and sintering of carbides; Bulava A. S.: conducting experiments on melting of samples; Brykin M. V.: analysis of the experimental results; Sheindlin M. A.: preparation of the text of the article.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The members of the authors’ collective have completed the work within the scope of their responsibility and contribution to the overall project. The text of the article has been agreed upon by all authors.
A. M. Frolov, P. S. Vervikishko, T. V. Bgasheva, S. V. Petukhov, A. S. Bulava, M. V. Brykin, M. A. Sheindlin
Joint Institute for High Temperatures, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
This paper provides a modification method for the surface layer of mixed tantalum–hafnium carbide samples to obtain the samples with extremely high density required for reliable implementation of the experiments related to the mass spectrometry of vapor generated during the laser-induced evaporation. Such samples were obtained by remelting the surface layer of tantalum–hafnium carbide ceramics using a series of subsecond laser pulses. Analysis of the obtained remelted areas has shown that the crystallized melt area is single-phase mixed carbide, namely a solid solution of the HfC – TaC system that is characterized by a highly uniform distribution of tantalum and hafnium throughout the remelted area. The time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to study the evolution of vapor components during the laser-induced evaporation process of pre-melted carbide that demonstrated a good correlation with the surface temperature in contrast to the experiments with the sintered ceramics.
Key words: ultra-refractory ceramics, laser heating, melting, laser-induced evaporation
Article received: April 14, 2025
Article accepted: May 25, 2025
INTRODUCTION
The transition metal carbides of groups IV and V demonstrate the outstanding thermal properties that inspires interest in their study for use in the conditions of extreme thermal loads [1–8]. Moreover, one of the most important propertie of these carbides and their compounds is their high melting point that can reach 4300 K [3]. The study of properties of these substances in the area of their potential application (at the temperatures above 3000 K) requires special experimental approaches to the examination of their properties under such conditions [1,4,8]. In this case, one of the key issues is obtaining the samples with certain characteristics, such as density, low impurity content, etc. [9,10]. The special requirements are imposed on the samples used to study the molecular composition of vapor during the laser-induced evaporation process. On the one part, such a study requires a substance with a high density (close to the theoretical one) to avoid generation of a non-uniform temperature field in the vicinity of the sublimation and evaporation surface during rapid heating [11]. On the other part, homogeneity of the distribution of main elements in the substance capacity shall be ensured, since this factor determines the vapor molecular composition and its compliance with the substance under study. The carbide synthesis methods proposed in the literature [10,12] do not allow obtaining any samples that meet these requirements. Thus, the spark plasma sintering method [10] makes is possible to synthesize the samples of high-density mixed carbides, however, they contain small inclusions of individual carbides. The arc discharge synthesis [12] allows obtaining the single-phase samples, but with significant impurities of oxides. This paper proposes a method for modifying the near-surface region of samples of ultra-refractory carbide ceramics (the HfC-TaC system) to obtain a high-density substance with homogenous elemental composition by the laser radiation remelting. The obtained samples were characterized by various analytical methods, and the operational performance of the developed experimental technology of mass spectrometric determination of vapor composition up to the temperatures of about 4500 K was demonstrated.
PREPARATION
OF INITIAL CARBIDE SAMPLES
The mixed carbide samples were obtained by using the hafnium, tantalum and acetylene black powders that were mixed in a ball mill. Hafnium and tantalum were taken in equal atomic fractions, and the atomic fraction of carbon in the mixture was about 50%. Then, a temporary binder (cetane) was added to the resulting powder mixture, after which the blanks with a diameter of 15 mm and a height of 30 mm were pressed using this mixture. The blanks were transferred in a graphite crucible to the high-temperature vacuum furnace, where they were heated to a temperature of 1 400 °C for 30 minutes in an argon environment. Thus, a mixture of hafnium and tantalum carbides was synthesized then ground in a tungsten carbide mortar, after which the temporary binder (cetane) was re-added. The resulting product of mixed carbides was pressed to obtain the samples with a diameter of 8 mm and a height of 7–8 mm. The pressed samples were then placed in a high-temperature vacuum furnace and sintered at 2 200 °C for 1 hour in an argon environment. The sintered samples were cut into two approximately equal pieces using a precision cutting machine. Further processing was performed only in relation to the inner and cleaner part of the sintered TaC–HfC system samples. According to the X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), the sintered samples obtained by this method, contained a mechanical mixture of tantalum carbide and hafnium carbides. The porosity of the sintered carbide, measured by hydrostatic weighing, was about 23%. Application of the samples with such specifications for the laser-induced mass spectrometry using the method described in [11] would lead to the non-uniform heating, temperature pulsation and the absence of a pronounced correlation between the partial pressures of the various vapor components and the surface temperature.
LASER MELTING OF CARBIDE
The experimental setup used for laser remelting of the sample [4] is shown in Fig. 1. The sample was placed in a holder in a sealed chamber. The chamber was evacuated and filled with argon of grade 6.0. This procedure was performed three times to remove residual oxygen from the chamber. The sample surface was heated by radiation emitted by an industrial laser (Trumpf, Germany) with a power of up to 5 kW, generating radiation at a wavelength of 1 030 nm with the heating spot diameter of about 5 mm. The high-speed video recording (3 000 frames/sec) in the reflected light of a diode laser (50 W, 808 nm) was used to analyze the surface condition during the heating process. The sample surface temperature was monitored using a luminance and multichannel pyrometers [13].
During the sample surface remelting by laser heating, it was necessary to generate a melt region of sufficient depth (about 100 μm) that would be obviously greater than the evaporation depth in the mass spectrometric experiment. A necessary condition for its development was the substance heating to a temperature of 200–300 K above its melting point. More significant overheating of the substance above the liquidus temperature is unsuitable, since it can lead to the decrease of amount of carbon in the near-surface layer as a result of its evaporation. To melt the substance, the pulsed laser operating modes with a certain dependence of the pulse power density on time were selected. Due to the eventual interaction processes between the heated sample and the holder material, it was not possible to maintain the substance at temperatures above 4000 K for a long period of time (more than 1 s). For this reason, a series of laser pulses with a duration of 600 ms were used to obtain a melt region with sufficient thickness. At first, the sample was exposed to the high-power density radiation (about 12 kW/cm2)for 400 ms to heat and melt the sample, with the maximum temperature during the heating process not exceeding 4600 K. Then, the power density was reduced and maintained at about 3 kW/cm2 for 200 ms that allowed the sample to cool down slowly enough and generate a smooth surface of the solidifying melt. The video record of the sample demonstrated the sample cracking during the rapid heating process, but this process did not prevent the formation of the molted pool with a diameter approximately equal to the diameter of the heating spot.
CHARACTERIZATION
OF THE REMELTED SAMPLES
The nitrogen and oxygen content in the original ceramic samples using a Fusion Master ON elemental analyzer (NCS, Germany). The amount of these impurities in the samples was no more than 1 atomic %. To analyze the internal structure of the sample melt with 50 mol % HfC after laser irradiation, a section was made through the melt region with the section plane passing through the center of the melt region perpendicular to the surface. The prepared section was analyzed on a scanning electron microscope with an EDX analyzer. Figure 2 a, b shows the SEM images of the section surface that clearly show the original sintered sample structure of the TaC–HfC system with a number of cracks filled with the resin used for the section preparation. In the upper part of the SEM images, a dense homogeneous area generated during the melt crystallization is clearly visible. The EDX analysis of the section surface has shown that the tantalum and hafnium atoms are uniformly distributed over the entire melt region, and the Ta/Hf ratio for this composition is close to unity within 5%, i. e. it matches the specified composition rather well.
Figure 3 shows the results of XRD analysis of the melt region, and also plots the positions of peaks corresponding to the individual tantalum and hafnium carbides. The output analysis has demonstrated that the crystallized melt is a solid solution of TaC–HfC with a cubic crystal lattice with a lattice parameter equal to 4.5561 Å.
STUDY OF THE SAMPLE
EVAPORATION PROCESS
The performance of the proposed sample preparation procedure was verified using a comparative study of the evaporation behaviour of the original sintered and specially prepared samples being heated by the laser pulses. The results for comparison were obtained using a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. This method, described in detail in the papers [14, 15], allows studying the molecular composition evolution of the vapor during the intense laser heating with a duration of several tens of milliseconds and a power density not exceeding 500 kW/cm2. Figure 4 shows the dependences of the atomic hafnium line intensity in the mass spectra for sintered carbide samples 0.5 HfC‑0.5 TaC and for the samples remelted as a result of laser exposure. In the case of the remelted carbide evaporation, a continuous enhanced intensity of hafnium evaporation is observed along with an increased temperature. Another situation is observed during evaporation of the sintered (initial) sample: in this case, a local decrease in the intensity of atomic hafnium is observed over time, despite the increased temperature that is explained by the inhomogeneity of sample obtained by the powder sintering method.
The intensity of atomic hafnium I(Hf) in the mass spectra was used to calculate its relative partial pressure p(Hf) in the vapor according to the formula recommended by IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) [16]:
p(Hf) ~ I(Hf) · T.
The temperature dependence of the relative partial pressure of hafnium in the vapor above the sample of the TaC–HfC system under study, obtained during the laser heating process, is shown in Fig. 5. It is evident that the linear dependence of the pressure logarithm on the reciprocal temperature is maintained throughout the entire temperature range. Thus, it can be concluded that the temperature dependence of the partial pressure of hafnium follows the second law of thermodynamics, and there are no of the evaporation regime.
CONCLUSION
The paper provides the surface modification results of the ultra-refractory carbide system TaC–HfC using the laser heating to obtain a sample suitable for studying the dependence of relative partial pressures of various vapor components on the temperature of up to 4500 K. Remelting of the carbide system sample using a series of sub-second laser pulses of a powerful industrial laser allowed obtaining a single-phase mixed high-density carbide with a uniform distribution of tantalum and hafnium in the melt region. The mass spectrometric study of laser-induced evaporation of the obtained sample showed that during evaporation of such pre-melted carbide, a correct and reproducible dependence of the partial pressures of various molecular vapor components on the temperature value was observed. Thus, it has been determined that it is possible to provide the experimental conditions necessary for analyzing the vapor molecular composition during the intense laser heating up to the previously unattainable temperatures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study was performed with financial support from the Russian Science Foundation under the grant No. 23-79-01139 (https://rscf.ru/project/23–79–01139/).
ABOUT AUTHORS
Frolov Aleksander Michailovich, Cand.of Sc. (Phys.&Math.), Senior Researcher, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, Joint Institute for High Temperatures, Russian Academy of Sciences (JIHT RAS), e-mail: a. m.froloff@yandex.ru, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-3091-9451
Vervikishko Pavel Sergeevich, Senior Researcher, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: miptbusiness@gmail.com, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-4527-6524
Bgasheva Tatiana Vladimirovna, Research Fellow, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: 1.8.1@list.ru, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-5258-0153
Petukhov Sergei Vladimirovich, leading engineer, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: petuhov.sergey@bk.ru, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0003-3852-1314
Bulava Alexander Sergeevich, research fellow, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: bulava.as@phystech.edu, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0009-0005-4804-7056
Brykin Mikhaik Vladimirovich, senior researcher, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: mbrykin@gmail.com, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-8046-888Х
Sheindlin Mikhail Aleksandrovich, Dr. of Sc.(Phys.&Math.), Head of laboratory, Laboratory of Extreme Energy Impacts, JIHT RAS, e-mail: sheindlin@yandex.ru, Moscow, Russia.
ORCID: 0000-0002-4960-7757
AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION
Frolov A. M.: idea of the experiment, project management; Vervikishko P. S.: analysis of the impurity composition of the samples; Bgasheva T. V.: SEM EDS analysis; Petukhov S. V.: synthesis and sintering of carbides; Bulava A. S.: conducting experiments on melting of samples; Brykin M. V.: analysis of the experimental results; Sheindlin M. A.: preparation of the text of the article.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The members of the authors’ collective have completed the work within the scope of their responsibility and contribution to the overall project. The text of the article has been agreed upon by all authors.
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